How Does a Rose Develop Its Fragrance, Why Does It Change, and How Does Science Study It?

How Does a Rose Develop Its Fragrance, Why Does It Change, and How Does Science Study It?

When we smell a rose, we are not detecting a single molecule. Instead, we perceive a complex combination of volatile compounds released into the surrounding air by the flower.

Some of these compounds contribute sweet and floral notes, while others introduce fresh, green, warm, spicy, or honey-like characteristics.

The identity, concentration, and relative balance of these molecules create the distinctive fragrance profile of a rose.

However, rose fragrance is not determined by genetics alone.

The flower's stage of development, time of harvest, ambient temperature, storage duration, and processing method can all influence its final aromatic character.

This is why a fresh rose, rose essential oil, rose water, and rose absolute may share recognizable floral characteristics without smelling exactly the same.

Rose Academy Insight

A stronger fragrance does not necessarily indicate higher quality.

Fragrance quality involves more than intensity. Balance, natural character, complexity, freshness, and the presence or absence of undesirable notes are equally important considerations.

1. Are Aroma and Scent the Same Thing?

In everyday language, the terms aroma, scent, and smell are often used interchangeably.

In sensory science, however, these concepts can have slightly different meanings.

What Is a Scent?

A scent, or odour, is the sensory perception that occurs when volatile molecules in the air stimulate olfactory receptors in the nose.

These receptors transform chemical signals into neural signals that the brain processes as recognizable smells.

What Is an Aroma?

The term aroma is often used in food and beverage science to describe the broader perception of volatile compounds through both the nose and the retronasal pathway.

Retronasal olfaction occurs when volatile compounds from food or beverages travel from the mouth toward the olfactory region during eating or drinking.

However, the expression rose aroma is also widely used to describe the overall fragrant character of roses.

What Is a Fragrance Profile?

A fragrance profile describes the overall sensory character created by the aromatic compounds present in a flower or product.

A rose may display a combination of:

• Sweet notes

• Floral notes

• Fresh green notes

• Citrus-like notes

• Spicy notes

• Honey-like notes

The balance between these characteristics contributes to the recognizable identity of each rose fragrance.

2. What Creates the Fragrance of a Rose?

Roses naturally produce a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through their biological and metabolic processes.

These molecules can evaporate from the flower and enter the surrounding air.

When they reach the nose, they interact with olfactory receptors and initiate the neural processes associated with smell.

Rose Fragrance Is Not Produced by One Compound

Researchers have identified hundreds of volatile compounds across different rose species and cultivars.

However, only a portion of these compounds makes a significant contribution to the recognizable character of a particular rose fragrance.

Important groups of aromatic compounds include:

• Terpenes

• Terpene alcohols

• Aromatic alcohols

• Esters

• Aldehydes

• Phenolic compounds

Each chemical group may contribute different characteristics to the overall fragrance.

The Role of Genetics

The genetic and biochemical pathways responsible for floral scent production in roses are highly complex.

Genetic differences between rose varieties may influence:

• Which fragrance molecules are produced

• How much of each compound is synthesized

• When these compounds are released

• The overall balance of the aromatic mixture

For this reason, even two roses belonging to the same botanical species may not have identical fragrance profiles.

A scientific review published in 2022 examined the genetic and biochemical mechanisms involved in floral scent formation in roses.

The research highlights the complexity of fragrance production and the interaction between genetic regulation and biochemical pathways.

Scientific reference:Feng et al., 2022 – Genetic and Biochemical Aspects of Floral Scents in Roses

Scientific Explanation

A volatile compound is a substance that can readily enter the air under ordinary environmental conditions.

However, volatility alone does not determine whether a molecule smells pleasant or makes an important contribution to rose fragrance.

Some volatile compounds have little sensory influence at the concentrations present, while others can be detected at extremely low levels.

3. The Principal Aromatic Compounds of Rosa damascena

Rosa damascena Mill., commonly associated with the renowned Isparta rose, possesses a complex and layered fragrance profile.

Although its chemical composition varies depending on the type of rose-derived product and the analytical method used, several aromatic compounds are particularly important.

Is This the Fixed Chemical Formula of Rose Fragrance?

No.

This table describes important compounds and their general sensory characteristics.

It does not represent a fixed formula applicable to every rose flower or rose-derived product.

For example, a compound that is prominent in the fragrance of a fresh rose may not be present at the same relative concentration in distilled rose essential oil.

Similarly, compounds that are more compatible with the aqueous phase may become particularly important in rose water or hydrosol.

The Importance of Phenethyl Alcohol

Phenethyl alcohol, also known as 2-phenylethanol, is a particularly interesting compound in rose fragrance research.

A study published in 2015 investigated the production and release of this compound in strongly and weakly scented Rosa damascena genotypes.

The researchers reported differences associated with the fragrance characteristics of the genotypes studied.

These findings support the understanding that rose fragrance depends not only on growing conditions but also on the plant's genetic characteristics.

Scientific reference:Karami et al., 2015 – Temporal Characterization of 2-Phenylethanol in Strongly and Weakly Scented Genotypes of Damask Rose

Rose Academy Perspective

The botanical identity of a rose provides an essential starting point for understanding its fragrance.

However, botanical identity alone does not fully describe the chemical or sensory properties of a particular flower or finished product.

4. Is the Most Abundant Compound Always the Most Important to the Fragrance?

Not necessarily.

A common misunderstanding is that the compound present in the highest concentration must be the compound responsible for most of the fragrance.

In reality, the relationship between chemical concentration and sensory importance is more complex.

What Is an Odour Threshold?

The odour threshold is the concentration at which a particular substance becomes detectable by the human sense of smell under specified conditions.

Some aromatic molecules have extremely low odour thresholds.

This means that even very small quantities can produce a noticeable sensory effect.

Other compounds may be present in relatively high concentrations but contribute less to the perceived fragrance because their odour thresholds are higher.

Why Does This Matter for Rose Fragrance?

A compound detected at a low percentage during chemical analysis may still contribute strongly to the distinctive character of a rose.

Conversely, a compound representing a larger percentage of the analytical profile may not be equally influential in the overall sensory experience.

Therefore, simply looking at the relative percentages of compounds is not sufficient to identify which molecules determine the fragrance.

A more complete evaluation considers:

1. The concentration of each compound

2. Its odour threshold

3. Interactions with other aromatic compounds

4. How the combined mixture is perceived by humans

Did You Know?

A molecule present in only a very small amount can make a remarkable contribution to the overall fragrance of a rose.

In fragrance science, importance is not measured by concentration alone.

5. Why Does a Rose Smell Different at Different Times of Day?

Flowers do not release their aromatic compounds at a constant rate throughout the day.

Fragrance production and emission can vary according to:

• Biological rhythms

• Temperature

• Light

• Humidity

• Stage of flower development

These changes help explain why the same rose may appear to smell different in the morning, afternoon, or evening.

The Influence of Temperature

As temperature increases, certain volatile molecules evaporate more rapidly.

This may make a fragrance appear stronger for a short period.

However, increased evaporation may also contribute to more rapid losses of volatile compounds from the flower.

In the cooler morning hours, evaporation is generally slower.

Why Are Oil-Bearing Roses Traditionally Harvested Early?

Research involving Rosa damascena has shown that harvesting time and storage conditions can influence both essential oil yield and chemical composition.

For this reason, oil-bearing roses are traditionally harvested during the early morning, while temperatures are still relatively cool.

One of the objectives is to limit the loss of volatile aromatic constituents as temperatures rise.

However, this does not mean that every rose harvested in the morning is automatically of superior quality.

Environmental conditions, the time between harvesting and processing, and the production method also influence the final result.

Scientific reference:Kumar et al., 2013 – Effect of Diurnal Variability and Storage Conditions on Essential Oil Content and Quality of Damask Rose Flowers

A Common Misconception

Misconception: Roses are harvested early in the morning simply because they smell better at that time.

Scientific explanation: An important reason for early harvesting is to reduce possible losses of volatile compounds as temperatures increase. The perceived fragrance may also change throughout the day because of temperature and humidity.

6. Does the Flower's Stage of Development Affect Its Fragrance?

Yes.

A rosebud, a partially opened flower, and a fully opened rose may have different volatile compound profiles.

As a flower develops, several biological processes change.

These may include:

• The activity of enzymes involved in fragrance production

• The concentration of individual aromatic compounds

• The rate at which volatile compounds are released

• The balance between different fragrance notes

Why Is Flower Maturity Important?

The stage of flowering at harvest can influence both aromatic characteristics and processing outcomes.

Analytical studies examining different Rosa damascena cultivars and flowering stages have reported changes in volatile compound composition and associated sensory descriptions during flower development.

Consequently, harvest maturity is an important consideration when evaluating essential oil yield and the desired fragrance character.

Scientific reference:Research on Volatile Compounds of Damask Roses at Different Flowering Stages

Rose Academy Insight

Harvest timing is not determined solely by the visual beauty of the flower.

Its developmental stage can influence the aromatic material available for processing.

7. What Happens to Rose Fragrance After Harvesting?

When a rose flower is removed from the plant, its biological and chemical processes do not immediately stop.

Freshly harvested flowers continue to undergo changes.

If large quantities of flowers are piled together, heat may accumulate as a result of respiration and other biological processes.

Mechanical damage, enzymatic activity, and microbial processes may also influence the flower material.

How Can Delayed Processing Affect the Aroma?

As the waiting period increases, some fresh floral notes may diminish.

At the same time, other characteristics may become more noticeable, including:

• Green notes

• Sour notes

• Fermented notes

• Other changes associated with post-harvest deterioration

The extent of these changes depends on the handling and storage conditions.

Which Conditions Help Preserve Rose Aroma?

Several practices are important for limiting unwanted changes:

• Avoiding excessive compression of harvested flowers

• Preventing overheating

• Transporting flowers promptly to the processing facility

• Maintaining suitable holding temperatures

• Avoiding large, poorly ventilated piles of flowers

These conditions are particularly relevant when large quantities of roses are harvested for commercial distillation.

Why Does Post-Harvest Handling Matter?

The quality of roses in the field is important.

However, poor transportation or storage conditions may alter that quality before the flowers even reach the distillation vessel.

Rose Academy Insight

Rose fragrance quality begins in the field, but it does not end there.

Harvesting, transportation, temporary storage, and processing can all leave their own signature on the final aroma.

8. Why Do Fresh Roses and Rose Essential Oil Smell Different?

Distillation does not transfer every compound from a fresh flower into a bottle in exactly the same form or proportion.

The behaviour of volatile compounds during distillation depends on their physical and chemical properties.

Important factors include:

• Volatility

• Water solubility

• Distribution between aqueous and oil phases

• Temperature

• Processing duration

These characteristics influence how aromatic compounds are distributed during production.

Two Different Fractions from Distillation

Conventional rose distillation can produce two main aromatic fractions.

Rose essential oil

The separated oil fraction is enriched in volatile compounds that tend to partition into the oil phase.

Rose water or hydrosol

The aqueous distillate contains volatile compounds that remain dissolved or dispersed in the water phase.

These fractions are related, but their chemical compositions differ.

Why Is Phenethyl Alcohol Important in Rose Water?

Phenethyl alcohol has relatively greater compatibility with the aqueous phase than many constituents typically associated with the separated essential oil.

As a result, it can be prominent in rose water and hydrosol preparations.

By comparison, terpene alcohols such as citronellol, geraniol, and nerol are often particularly important to the characteristic profile of rose essential oil.

Is Rose Oil Simply a Concentrated Fresh Rose?

No.

Rose essential oil is not an exact concentrated copy of the fresh flower.

Likewise, rose water should not be described simply as diluted rose essential oil.

Each preparation reflects a different distribution of compounds arising from the production process.

This distinction is essential when comparing the fragrance, composition, and characteristics of rose-derived products.

9. Why Do Different Rose Products Have Different Fragrances?

Rose-derived products may share familiar floral notes while presenting noticeably different overall sensory profiles.

These descriptions represent general tendencies rather than fixed rules.

The properties of the original flowers, the production method, and the storage conditions may all influence the aroma of each product.

Why Does Production Method Matter?

Different production processes recover different groups and proportions of chemical compounds.

Therefore, even when two products originate from Rosa damascena, they may offer distinct aromatic experiences.

The botanical source may be the same, but the resulting fragrance profile does not have to be identical.

10. How Do Scientists Study Rose Fragrance in the Laboratory?

Understanding rose aroma requires the combined evaluation of chemical composition and human sensory perception.

Different analytical methods answer different questions.

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

GC-MS is a widely used analytical technique for examining mixtures of volatile compounds.

Gas chromatography separates the components of the sample.

Mass spectrometry provides information that helps identify these components.

For rose-derived materials, GC-MS can help researchers investigate:

• Which volatile compounds are present

• Their approximate relative distribution under the analytical method used

• Differences between samples or production methods

• Changes occurring during processing or storage

However, GC-MS alone does not determine whether a fragrance is pleasant, balanced, or preferred by consumers.

Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID)

GC-FID is commonly used to measure or compare the quantities of compounds separated by gas chromatography.

It can be particularly useful when examining the composition, quality, and authenticity of rose essential oil.

Researchers may evaluate major, minor, and chiral components to investigate differences associated with geographical origin, production, or authenticity.

Scientific reference:Rusanov et al., 2023 – Determination of Major, Minor and Chiral Components as Quality and Authenticity Markers of Rosa damascena Oil by GC-FID

Headspace Analysis and Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME)

Headspace analysis examines volatile compounds that enter the air above a sample.

Instead of analysing only the liquid or flower material itself, the researcher examines the volatile fraction present in the surrounding space.

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) can be used to collect these volatile compounds before instrumental analysis.

These methods are especially useful because they can provide information about compounds that may be available for perception when a person smells a flower or product.

However, the measured profile also depends on the sampling conditions and analytical procedure.

Gas Chromatography–Olfactometry (GC-O)

Gas chromatography–olfactometry combines instrumental separation with human sensory evaluation.

As individual compounds emerge from the chromatographic system, trained evaluators smell them.

This helps researchers investigate whether the separated compounds are detectable by the human nose and how they are perceived.

GC-O is particularly valuable because a chemically measurable compound is not necessarily a major contributor to the perceived fragrance.

Sensory Analysis

Sensory analysis uses trained assessors to evaluate fragrance characteristics according to defined criteria.

A trained panel may assess:

• Freshness

• Floral character

• Sweetness

• Green notes

• Spiciness

• Intensity

• Persistence

• Overall balance

Sensory evaluation helps reveal qualities that cannot be described through instrumental chemistry alone.

What Does the Science Tell Us?

GC-MS can help identify the volatile compounds present in a rose product, but it cannot independently determine whether the fragrance is beautiful, harmonious, or appealing to consumers.

Chemical analysis and sensory evaluation answer different scientific questions.

Both are important for understanding aroma quality.

11. How Does the Human Brain Perceive Rose Fragrance?

When volatile molecules reach the olfactory receptors inside the nasal cavity, they initiate a neural process.

Signals travel to the olfactory bulb and then interact with brain regions involved in emotion, learning, and memory.

These neural connections help explain why certain fragrances can become strongly associated with personal experiences.

A rose fragrance might remind someone of:

• A childhood garden

• A family member

• A particular season

• A special celebration

• An emotionally meaningful event

However, the same fragrance does not necessarily produce the same emotional response in everyone.

Personal experiences, cultural background, fragrance preferences, and previous associations all influence perception.

Rose Scent and Memory Research

A well-known sleep study published in 2007 investigated how odours may function as cues during learning and memory consolidation.

Participants learned a spatial memory task while exposed to rose fragrance.

The same fragrance was later presented again during slow-wave sleep.

Under these specific conditions, the researchers observed improvements in recall.

Scientific reference:Rasch et al., 2007 – Odor Cues During Slow-Wave Sleep Prompt Declarative Memory Consolidation

What Does This Study Actually Demonstrate?

The result was not that rose fragrance generally improves memory.

Instead, the research examined whether a scent associated with learning could serve as a sensory reminder when presented again during sleep.

The fragrance acted as a memory cue, connecting the learning experience with subsequent sleep-related memory processing.

An Important Scientific Distinction

The use of rose scent in a memory experiment does not demonstrate that every form of rose fragrance improves memory in everyday life.

The study investigated a specific relationship between learning, odour exposure, and sleep.

Research examining the effects of rose fragrance on mood and relaxation belongs to a related but separate scientific field.

When evaluating those studies, it is important to consider:

• The product used

• The dose or concentration

• The route of administration

• The control group

• The number of participants

• Individual fragrance preferences

12. Natural and Synthetic Rose Fragrances

Natural rose fragrance is formed by a complex and variable mixture of compounds produced by the flower.

Synthetic rose fragrances may be created from a single aroma molecule or from combinations of naturally occurring, nature-identical, and synthetic fragrance ingredients.

Both approaches can produce recognizable rose-like scents.

However, their chemical profiles and production methods may differ.

Potential Advantages of Synthetic Fragrance Production

Synthetic fragrance ingredients can offer certain advantages.

For example, they may:

• Support a more consistent fragrance profile

• Reduce dependence on scarce natural aromatic raw materials

• Make production costs easier to control

• Allow perfumers to reproduce or modify particular sensory characteristics

Characteristics of Natural Rose Products

Natural rose-derived materials reflect variations associated with:

• Growing region

• Harvest season

• Environmental conditions

• Flower maturity

• Processing method

These differences contribute to the natural variability and complexity of their aromatic profiles.

Is Natural Always Better or Safer?

It would not be scientifically accurate to categorize natural and synthetic fragrance materials simply as "good" and "bad."

A compound being natural does not guarantee that it is safe for everyone.

Likewise, a compound being synthetic does not automatically make it harmful.

Safety must be evaluated according to factors such as:

• Chemical identity

• Purity

• Concentration

• Exposure

• Intended use

Rose Academy Perspective

The scientific evaluation of a fragrance should focus on its actual composition, quality, performance, and safety rather than relying exclusively on whether its ingredients are natural or synthetic.

13. How Is Rose Fragrance Quality Evaluated?

The quality of a rose fragrance cannot be determined by its strength alone.

Professional fragrance evaluation considers several characteristics together.

These may include:

• Balance and complexity

• Resemblance to the fresh flower

• Harmony between green, sweet, and floral notes

• Presence or absence of undesirable odours

• Changes in the fragrance over time

• Consistency between production batches

• Chemical composition

• Evaluation by trained sensory assessors

Why Is Intensity Not Enough?

A powerful fragrance may appear impressive at first, but intensity does not necessarily indicate quality.

A very strong scent that is sharp, one-dimensional, or poorly balanced may not be considered superior to a softer fragrance with greater complexity and harmony.

The Importance of Sensory Balance

A well-balanced rose fragrance may combine fresh, sweet, floral, green, and other aromatic characteristics in a way that creates a coherent sensory impression.

Professional evaluation therefore considers the relationship between fragrance components, rather than focusing only on their total intensity.

Rose Academy Insight

Fragrance quality is multidimensional.

Intensity is one characteristic, but balance, complexity, authenticity, and sensory appeal also matter.

14. Why Does Rose Aroma Change During Storage?

Rose-derived aromatic products may undergo chemical changes during storage.

Exposure to light, heat, and oxygen can contribute to oxidation or degradation of certain volatile compounds.

Other factors may also influence fragrance stability, including:

• Frequent opening of the container

• Air permeability of the packaging

• Storage temperature

• Duration of storage

• Exposure to light and oxygen

As the chemical composition changes, the sensory profile may also change.

Certain notes may become weaker, while others may become more noticeable.

Microbiological Stability and Fragrance Stability Are Different

A product may remain microbiologically acceptable while its fragrance profile changes over time.

For this reason, microbiological shelf life and aromatic stability are not the same concept.

Microbiological quality relates to the product's microbial characteristics and compliance with appropriate specifications.

Aromatic stability concerns the preservation of its intended sensory properties.

How Can Fragrance Stability Be Evaluated?

A more complete assessment may combine:

• Chemical analyses at defined intervals

• Sensory evaluations

• Controlled storage conditions

• Comparisons with reference samples

These approaches help researchers and manufacturers understand how a fragrance changes over time.

15. Common Misconceptions About Rose Fragrance

"A stronger-smelling rose product is always better quality."

Incorrect.

Fragrance intensity is only one aspect of quality.

Balance, complexity, freshness, and the absence of undesirable notes are also important.

"A single molecule creates the scent of a rose."

Incorrect.

Rose fragrance results from the combined contribution of numerous volatile compounds.

"Fresh roses, rose essential oil, and rose water should smell identical."

Incorrect.

Different production processes result in different distributions of aromatic compounds.

These preparations therefore do not necessarily have identical fragrance profiles.

"GC-MS can show how beautiful a fragrance smells."

Incorrect.

GC-MS examines chemical composition.

Whether a fragrance is perceived as beautiful, pleasant, or balanced requires sensory evaluation and may vary between individuals.

"Natural rose fragrance should smell exactly the same every year."

Incorrect.

Climate, harvesting conditions, flower maturity, and processing methods can contribute to natural variation.

"Natural fragrance ingredients are safe for everyone."

Incorrect.

Naturally occurring aromatic compounds can also cause sensitivity or allergic reactions in certain individuals.

Their safety depends on composition, concentration, exposure, and intended use.

16. Chapter Summary

Rose fragrance is not produced by a single chemical compound.

It is the result of a complex and balanced combination of volatile molecules.

The production and emission of these molecules may change according to:

• The rose's genetic characteristics

• Stage of flower development

• Environmental conditions

• Time of harvest

After harvesting, storage and transportation conditions become important for preserving aromatic quality.

When roses undergo distillation or extraction, their compounds are distributed differently according to their physical and chemical properties.

As a result, fresh roses, rose essential oil, rose water, and rose absolute do not smell exactly the same.

Why Must Chemistry and Sensory Science Be Considered Together?

Chemical analysis alone cannot fully explain the sensory experience of rose fragrance.

Instrumental methods such as GC-MS reveal important information about volatile compounds.

However, sensory evaluation is needed to understand how the human nose perceives the resulting aromatic mixture.

Together, these methods provide a more complete understanding of rose fragrance.

The Central Scientific Conclusion

The fragrance of a rose emerges from the interaction of many volatile compounds. Its character is shaped by genetics, flower development, environmental conditions, harvesting, processing, and storage. Understanding rose aroma therefore requires both chemical analysis and the study of human sensory perception.

Ultimately, the experience of rose fragrance is not determined only by the molecules present in a flower or bottle.

It also emerges from the interaction of those molecules with our senses, memories, and personal experiences.

The Akita Rose Academy Perspective

At Akita Rose Academy, we believe that understanding Rosa damascena requires looking beyond the simple description of a pleasant floral fragrance.

Rose aroma is a complex botanical and chemical characteristic influenced by the flower's origin, growing conditions, development, harvesting, and production method.

Scientific techniques help us identify and investigate the molecules involved.

Sensory research helps us understand how those molecules are perceived.

Together, these approaches offer a more comprehensive appreciation of the botanical and aromatic identity of Rosa damascena.

Our educational approach distinguishes the chemical composition of rose-derived materials from the sensory experiences they create.

It also recognizes that different rose products may share a botanical origin while retaining distinct chemical and aromatic identities.

Understanding the fragrance of Rosa damascena means understanding both the science of its molecules and the complexity of human perception.

Scientific References

1. Karami, A., Niazi, A., Kavoosi, G., Kholdi, A., & Salehi, H. (2015). Temporal characterization of 2-phenylethanol in strongly and weakly scented genotypes of damask rose. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 21, 43–49.
   https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-014-0274-y

2. Kumar, R., Sharma, S., Sood, S., Agnihotri, V. K., & Singh, B. (2013). Effect of diurnal variability and storage conditions on essential oil content and quality of damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) flowers in north western Himalayas. Scientia Horticulturae, 154, 102–108.
   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2013.02.002

3. Feng, L., Chen, C., Li, T., Wang, M., Tao, J., Zhao, D., & Sheng, L. (2022). Genetic and biochemical aspects of floral scents in roses. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(14), 8014.
   https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23148014

4. Charoimek, N., Sunanta, P., Tangpao, T., Suksathan, R., Chanmahasathien, W., Sirilun, S., Hua, K. F., Chung, H. H., Sommano, S. R., & Junmahasathien, T. (2024). Pharmaceutical potential evaluation of Damask rose by-products from volatile oil extraction. Plants, 13(12), 1605.
   https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13121605

5. Rusanov, K., Kovacheva, N., Rusanova, M., & Atanassov, I. (2023). Determination of major, minor and chiral components as quality and authenticity markers of Rosa damascena oil by GC-FID. Plants, 12(3), 506.
   https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030506

6. Kiani, H. S., Sabokdast Noudehi, M., Shokrpour, M., Zargar, M., & Naghavi, M. R. (2024). Investigation of genes involved in scent and color production in Rosa damascena Mill. Scientific Reports, 14, 20576.
   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71518-9

7. Rasch, B., Büchel, C., Gais, S., & Born, J. (2007). Odor cues during slow-wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation. Science, 315(5817), 1426–1429.
   https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1138581

Akita Rose Academy — Exploring Rosa damascena through botanical knowledge, analytical science, and the fascinating relationship between fragrance and human perception.