Do Rose Essential Oil, Rose Extracts and Rose Water Have the Same Antimicrobial Effects?

Do Rose Essential Oil, Rose Extracts, and Rose Water Have the Same Antimicrobial Effects?

Understanding the antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral potential of Rosa damascena through scientific research—and why the findings cannot be applied equally to every rose-derived product.

Scientific research on Rosa damascena, commonly known as the Damask rose, has explored the antimicrobial properties of rose essential oil, flower extracts, and rose water against selected bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

Several laboratory studies have reported promising antimicrobial activity, particularly in rose essential oil and concentrated flower extracts.

However, an important scientific distinction must be made: not all rose-derived products have the same chemical composition, and their antimicrobial effects cannot be assumed to be equivalent.

The results depend on the preparation being studied, its chemical composition, the concentration used, the microorganism tested, and the experimental method.

Furthermore, antimicrobial activity observed in a laboratory does not automatically demonstrate that a product can prevent or treat infections in humans.

Understanding these differences is essential for interpreting the scientific evidence responsibly.

What Does "Antimicrobial" Mean?

The term antimicrobial describes substances or interventions capable of inhibiting the growth or activity of microorganisms, or inactivating them under specific conditions.

It includes several categories:

• Antibacterial activity: Activity against bacteria.

• Antifungal activity: Activity against fungi, including yeasts and moulds.

• Antiviral activity: Activity against viruses or particular stages of viral infection.

These effects are not interchangeable. A substance that inhibits certain bacteria may have little or no effect against fungi or viruses.

1. Which Rose-Derived Products Have Been Studied?

Scientific investigations involving Rosa damascena have used several distinct preparations.

Although these preparations originate from the same botanical species, they are not chemically identical.

For example, findings involving concentrated rose essential oil cannot automatically be applied to rose water.

Similarly, results obtained with one flower extract may not apply to another extract prepared using a different solvent or production method.

Rose Academy Insight

The botanical name Rosa damascena identifies the plant species, but it does not fully describe the chemical composition or biological activity of a finished product.

2. The Antibacterial Potential of Rose Essential Oil

Rose essential oil contains numerous volatile aromatic constituents.

Depending on the sample, important components may include:

• Citronellol

• Geraniol

• Nerol

• Linalool

Other compounds, including eugenol, may occur in smaller amounts and have also been investigated for antimicrobial-related properties.

Laboratory research has reported varying degrees of antibacterial activity against selected microorganisms, including:

• Staphylococcus aureus

• Staphylococcus epidermidis

• Streptococcus pyogenes

• Bacillus subtilis

• Escherichia coli

• Klebsiella pneumoniae

• Pseudomonas aeruginosa

These organisms include both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

However, the findings are not consistent across all studies.

Some rose essential oil samples have inhibited particular bacterial strains, while others have demonstrated weaker activity or no measurable inhibition against the same organisms.

Why Do Results Differ?

Several factors may influence the antimicrobial behaviour of rose essential oil:

1. Geographical origin and growing conditions

2. Harvest timing

3. Distillation method

4. Chemical composition of the oil

5. Concentration used in the experiment

6. Experimental methodology

7. The species and strain of microorganism tested

For example, Arıdoğan and colleagues investigated the antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of several essential oils, including rose oil [3].

Other research has demonstrated that the chemical profile of Rosa damascena essential oil can vary considerably according to geographical and production-related factors [5].

These differences may influence laboratory antimicrobial results.

What Can We Conclude?

The available evidence indicates that certain Rosa damascena essential oil samples can demonstrate antibacterial activity under laboratory conditions.

However, these findings do not establish that rose essential oil is an effective or safe treatment for bacterial infections in humans.

Clinical conclusions require appropriately designed studies using clearly characterized and standardized preparations.

What the Science Tells Us

Antibacterial activity observed in a laboratory is evidence of activity under the conditions tested—not proof that the substance can safely or effectively treat an infection in people.

3. The Antibacterial Potential of Rose Flower Extracts

Rose flower extracts can be prepared using water, ethanol, methanol, or other extraction solvents.

Each method may recover different groups of chemical constituents from the flowers.

Consequently, rose extracts prepared using different methods may vary substantially in composition and antimicrobial activity.

Researchers have investigated several groups of compounds that may contribute to the biological properties of these extracts, including:

• Phenolic acids

• Flavonoids

• Tannins

• Certain volatile compounds

What Have Laboratory Studies Found?

In 2004, Özkan and colleagues published a study examining the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Rosa damascena flower extracts [2].

The researchers investigated extracts obtained from fresh and spent rose flowers and evaluated their activity against selected bacterial species.

The study reported antibacterial activity under the experimental conditions used, although the degree of inhibition varied among microorganisms.

More recently, a study published in the 2024 volume of Microorganisms investigated extracts of Rosa damascena and Hypericum perforatum against microorganisms associated with oral health and food sources [6].

The researchers examined several extraction methods, including aqueous, ethanolic, aqueous-ethanolic, and enzymatic approaches.

They evaluated antibacterial activity using laboratory methods such as minimum inhibitory concentration, minimum bactericidal concentration, biofilm-related measurements, and time-kill experiments.

The findings demonstrated that antimicrobial responses depended on the extract type, concentration, and microorganism tested.

These results support further investigation of rose flower extracts as potential sources of biologically active compounds.

However, they do not establish the clinical effectiveness of rose extracts in treating bacterial infections.

Findings Involving Oral Microorganisms

Some studies have explored the activity of rose-derived preparations against microorganisms associated with dental caries, periodontal conditions, and other oral infections.

Investigated organisms have included Streptococcus mutans and other bacteria relevant to oral health.

The broader research literature also examines periodontal pathogens such as Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans.

These microorganisms are of scientific interest because of their involvement in dental plaque, periodontal disease, and oral biofilms.

A biofilm is a structured community of microorganisms attached to a surface and surrounded by a protective matrix.

Biofilms are particularly relevant to oral health because dental plaque is a complex microbial biofilm.

Some laboratory investigations suggest that selected botanical extracts may inhibit microbial growth or influence biofilm formation.

However, such findings must be interpreted according to the exact preparation, microorganism, and experimental conditions.

These studies do not demonstrate that rose extracts alone can prevent or treat dental caries, gum disease, or root canal infections in humans.

Further investigations are needed to establish whether laboratory findings can be translated into safe and effective oral care applications.

4. Are Rose Water and Rose Hydrosol Antimicrobial?

The scientific evidence concerning the antimicrobial properties of rose water is more limited than the evidence involving rose essential oil and concentrated flower extracts.

One important reason is that rose hydrosol generally contains much lower concentrations of many volatile aromatic compounds than the corresponding essential oil.

However, the concentration and distribution of these compounds depend on the production method.

Furthermore, products described as "rose water" are not always manufactured in the same way.

Their chemical composition may be influenced by:

• Distillation conditions

• Distillation duration

• Rose-to-water ratio

• Separation or retention of the essential oil fraction

• Subsequent processing and storage conditions

These factors should be considered when comparing different rose water preparations.

4.1. Comparing Rose Essential Oil, Hydrosol, and Absolute

In 2009, Ulusoy and colleagues published a study in Current Microbiology comparing rose essential oil, rose hydrosol, and rose absolute [1].

The researchers examined their chemical composition, total phenolic content, selected chemical constituents, and antibacterial activity.

The three preparations demonstrated different chemical characteristics.

Rose essential oil and rose absolute showed antibacterial activity against selected bacteria under the experimental conditions.

The hydrosol tested did not demonstrate comparable antibacterial activity in the reported assays.

What Does This Tell Us?

This study illustrates an important scientific principle:

Antimicrobial findings obtained with rose essential oil cannot automatically be attributed to rose hydrosol.

The preparations differ in composition, and their biological behaviour may differ accordingly.

The results also apply to the specific samples tested. They do not establish that every rose hydrosol will produce identical results.

4.2. A Human Study Examining Hand Microflora

In 2020, Bayhan and colleagues published a study in GMS Hygiene and Infection Control investigating the effects of Rosa damascena hydrosol on microorganisms present on human hands [4].

The study included 45 adult volunteers.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups:

• One group used 3 mL of rose hydrosol.

• The other group used 3 mL of an alcohol-based hand antiseptic containing 70% ethanol.

Participants rubbed their hands according to a standardized hand-rubbing procedure.

Researchers collected fingertip samples before and after treatment and assessed bacterial colony counts.

What Were the Results?

The alcohol-based antiseptic produced a statistically significant reduction in bacterial colony counts.

The tested rose hydrosol did not produce a statistically significant reduction under the conditions investigated.

How Should This Finding Be Interpreted?

The study did not demonstrate an effective hand-antiseptic action for the specific rose hydrosol tested.

However, the results cannot automatically be extended to every rose distillate produced using different methods.

They also do not establish that the tested hydrosol has no biological properties of any kind.

The conclusion is more specific: the investigated hydrosol did not significantly reduce hand bacterial colony counts in this experiment.

A Common Misconception

Misconception: Rose water is a natural disinfectant and can replace a hand antiseptic.

Scientific explanation: Although certain rose-derived preparations demonstrate antimicrobial activity in laboratory studies, there is insufficient evidence to support the use of rose water as a substitute for validated disinfectants or hand antiseptics.

5. The Potential of Rose Water in Oral Care

Clinical research examining rose water in oral care remains limited.

One randomized controlled trial investigated the use of rose water as part of an oral care protocol for patients receiving mechanical ventilation in an intensive care unit [8].

Ventilator-associated pneumonia is an infection that can develop in patients receiving mechanical ventilation.

Preventive oral care is one component of infection prevention protocols in critical care settings.

How Was the Study Conducted?

The study included 80 patients who completed the trial.

Participants received one of two oral care approaches:

• Chlorhexidine solution as part of the standard protocol.

• Rose water combined with chlorhexidine solution.

Researchers evaluated the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, including early-onset and late-onset cases.

What Did the Researchers Find?

The study reported a statistically significant reduction in early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia in the intervention group.

However, no statistically significant difference was found in the overall incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia or in late-onset cases.

The findings therefore require careful interpretation.

What Does This Mean?

The study provides preliminary clinical information about a particular oral care intervention in a specific hospital setting.

However, because rose water was used alongside chlorhexidine, the findings do not establish that rose water alone was responsible for the reported result.

They also do not demonstrate that rose water can independently kill oral bacteria or prevent pneumonia.

The study should not be used to justify replacing established oral hygiene or infection prevention procedures with rose water.

Rose Academy Insight

Even when a human study reports a favourable outcome, it is essential to examine the full treatment protocol, comparison group, and outcomes measured before attributing the result to a particular ingredient.

6. The Antifungal Potential of Rosa damascena

Researchers have also investigated the effects of Rosa damascena essential oil against selected fungi and yeasts.

Laboratory studies have reported varying degrees of antifungal activity against microorganisms including:

• Candida albicans

• Candida glabrata

• Aspergillus brasiliensis

These organisms differ in their biological characteristics and clinical relevance.

Candida species are yeasts that may cause opportunistic infections under certain conditions.

Aspergillus brasiliensis is a filamentous fungus commonly used in microbiological testing.

What Have Studies Reported?

Research has demonstrated that certain rose essential oil samples can inhibit selected fungal organisms under laboratory conditions [5, 9].

A 2023 study investigating Bulgarian Rosa damascena essential oil examined its activity against Candida albicans and Candida glabrata [9].

The researchers reported inhibitory and fungicidal activity against the tested strains under the experimental conditions.

They also investigated the influence of concentration and experimental pH on antifungal responses.

These results suggest that rose essential oil contains constituents worthy of further investigation in antifungal research.

However, the findings were obtained in laboratory experiments.

Does This Mean Rose Oil Can Treat Fungal Infections?

No.

Laboratory antifungal activity does not establish that rose essential oil is clinically effective, appropriately formulated, or safe for treating fungal infections in humans.

In particular, applying undiluted essential oils directly to the skin or mucous membranes may cause irritation or allergic reactions.

The treatment of fungal infections requires appropriate medical evaluation and evidence-based interventions.

The Scientific Conclusion

Certain Rosa damascena essential oil samples have demonstrated antifungal potential in laboratory studies.

However, sufficient clinical evidence is not available to recommend rose essential oil as a treatment for fungal infections.

7. The Antiviral Potential of Rosa damascena

Antiviral research involving rose-derived products is still at an early stage.

A study published in 2025 in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences investigated the activity of Rosa damascena essential oil and floral water against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) [7].

HSV-1 is a virus commonly associated with oral herpes infections and can also cause infections in other tissues.

How Was the Study Conducted?

Researchers used a laboratory model involving rabbit retinal cells.

They examined the effects of rose essential oil and floral water on selected stages of HSV-1 infection.

The study also included computational modelling to investigate potential interactions between selected rose oil constituents and viral attachment-related mechanisms.

What Did the Researchers Observe?

The researchers reported effects on viral particles and the attachment of the virus to host cells under laboratory conditions.

However, the tested preparations did not demonstrate a significant direct inhibitory effect on intracellular viral replication in the assays reported.

The findings suggest that some components of rose-derived preparations may interact with particular stages of viral infection.

Nevertheless, these observations remain experimental.

What Can We Conclude?

The study did not involve human participants.

It did not establish clinical effectiveness against herpes infections.

It also did not demonstrate that rose essential oil or floral water can be safely applied to the eyes to prevent or treat viral disease.

Antiviral activity in a cell culture model must not be interpreted as evidence that a product can treat a viral infection in humans.

The most appropriate conclusion is that these findings provide a basis for further antiviral research.

8. How Is Antimicrobial Activity Measured?

Scientific studies use different methods to assess antimicrobial properties.

Each method measures a specific aspect of microbial growth inhibition or inactivation.

Why Do Different Methods Matter?

A disk diffusion test measures the inhibition zone formed around a sample.

However, the size of this zone depends not only on antimicrobial activity but also on how effectively the tested substance diffuses through the agar.

This is particularly relevant when examining essential oils, which may not disperse uniformly in water-based laboratory systems.

A large inhibition zone does not automatically indicate stronger antimicrobial activity under real-life conditions.

Similarly, a lower MIC generally indicates that less of a substance was required to inhibit the tested microorganism under those experimental conditions.

However, MIC values should only be compared when the experimental methods and relevant sample characteristics are sufficiently comparable.

Laboratory Activity Versus Clinical Effectiveness

An antimicrobial substance may produce measurable effects in laboratory testing at concentrations that are impractical, unsuitable, or unsafe for human use.

Therefore, laboratory results must be interpreted alongside formulation characteristics, exposure conditions, safety, and clinical evidence.

What the Science Tells Us

An antimicrobial test provides information about a specific experimental outcome. It does not, by itself, establish the effectiveness of a finished product in preventing or treating infections.

9. Why Do Scientific Studies Report Different Results?

The antimicrobial properties of Rosa damascena preparations are not fixed characteristics that remain identical across all products.

Several factors can influence the results.

1. Type of Rose Preparation

Rose essential oil, flower extracts, and hydrosols have different chemical compositions.

Therefore, they may demonstrate different antimicrobial behaviour.

2. Concentration

A substance may inhibit microbial growth at a high concentration in the laboratory but show little activity at lower concentrations.

The effective experimental concentration may not correspond to the concentration present in a finished product.

3. Chemical Profile

The relative proportions of compounds such as citronellol, geraniol, phenethyl alcohol, and phenolic constituents can vary between rose-derived preparations.

These differences may influence the measured biological activity.

4. Production Method

Distillation and extraction conditions influence which compounds are recovered and their relative concentrations.

5. Microorganism and Strain

A preparation may inhibit one microbial species while demonstrating little or no activity against another.

Different strains of the same species may also respond differently.

6. Experimental Method

Disk diffusion, MIC testing, and contact-time studies measure different characteristics.

Their results are not directly interchangeable.

7. Product Formulation

The pH, solvent system, and other formulation components may influence the measured activity.

This means that a result obtained with a purified or concentrated substance cannot automatically be attributed to a finished cosmetic formulation.

10. How Strong Is the Scientific Evidence?

The available research does not provide the same level of evidence for every rose-derived preparation or antimicrobial application.

The following table summarizes the general research status. It is a descriptive overview rather than a formal systematic grading of evidence quality.

An Important Distinction: Microbiological Quality Is Not Antimicrobial Efficacy

A product may remain microbiologically stable over an extended period without demonstrating antimicrobial activity against microorganisms on human skin or in the mouth.

These are different scientific concepts.

Microbiological quality refers to whether a product meets appropriate microbial quality requirements.

Product preservation and stability concern the ability of a formulation or production system to maintain its quality under defined storage conditions.

Antimicrobial efficacy refers to a demonstrated ability to inhibit or inactivate specific microorganisms under defined test conditions.

A product that contains no detectable pathogenic microorganisms is not necessarily capable of killing those microorganisms when applied externally.

Likewise, long-term microbiological stability does not, by itself, establish antiseptic or disinfectant effectiveness.

Rose Academy Insight

Product purity, microbiological stability, preservative effectiveness, and antimicrobial activity are related but scientifically distinct characteristics. Each requires appropriate evidence.

11. What Does This Research Mean for Akita Non-De-Oiled Rose Distillate?

Akita Non-De-Oiled Rose Distillate is produced using a method that differs from conventional rose water production in which the separable essential oil fraction is removed.

The production process is designed to retain the oil-related aromatic fraction within the distillate rather than deliberately separating it.

Consequently, its chemical characteristics should be evaluated on the basis of the finished material itself.

The Importance of Product-Specific Chemical Analysis

Analytical investigations of Akita Non-De-Oiled Rose Distillate have identified constituents including:

• Phenethyl alcohol

• β-Citronellol

• Benzyl alcohol

• Linalool

• Naturally occurring acetic acid

These compounds contribute to the chemical profile of the distillate and may be relevant when formulating questions for antimicrobial research.

However, the identification of these substances does not automatically demonstrate that the finished product has antibacterial, antifungal, or antiseptic effectiveness.

The antimicrobial properties of individual chemical constituents cannot simply be assumed to represent the activity of the complete distillate.

Likewise, results obtained from other rose essential oils, flower extracts, or hydrosols cannot be directly transferred to Akita's product.

Which Scientific Studies Would Help Investigate Its Antimicrobial Potential?

A structured research programme could include:

1. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Testing

Evaluating whether the distillate inhibits the growth of selected bacterial and fungal strains under defined laboratory conditions.

2. Minimum Bactericidal and Fungicidal Concentration Testing

Investigating whether the product demonstrates bactericidal or fungicidal activity at specified concentrations.

3. Contact-Time Studies

Examining whether antimicrobial activity, if present, changes according to the duration of contact with selected microorganisms.

4. Controlled Laboratory Studies Involving Oral Microorganisms

Investigating the product's activity against carefully selected oral microorganisms using appropriate laboratory methods.

5. Biofilm Studies

Where scientifically justified, evaluating possible effects on biofilm formation or established biofilms.

6. Integrated Chemical and Microbiological Analysis

Examining GC-MS results alongside microbiological measurements to investigate possible relationships between chemical composition and biological activity.

Such investigations would help generate product-specific evidence rather than relying on results reported for other rose-derived preparations.

What Do Akita's Existing Stability Results Demonstrate?

Akita's long-term stability observations and microbiological quality testing provide valuable information about the product's characteristics and preservation behaviour.

However, these findings should not be presented as direct evidence that the distillate kills bacteria or fungi on the skin or in the mouth.

Product stability and antimicrobial effectiveness must be investigated separately.

This distinction is essential for responsible scientific interpretation and communication.

12. Key Takeaways

Scientific research suggests that certain Rosa damascena preparations have antimicrobial potential, particularly rose essential oil and selected concentrated flower extracts.

However, the findings must be interpreted carefully.

• Rose essential oil has demonstrated antibacterial activity against certain microorganisms in laboratory studies, but results vary between samples and methods.

• Rose flower extracts may exhibit antibacterial properties, depending on their extraction method, concentration, and chemical composition.

• Rose hydrosols have been less extensively studied, and reported antimicrobial results are variable.

• A human hand-rubbing study found no statistically significant reduction in bacterial colony counts with the particular rose hydrosol tested.

• Antifungal investigations have identified promising laboratory activity in some rose essential oil samples, particularly against selected Candida species.

• Antiviral research has produced preliminary findings in cell culture models, but clinical effectiveness has not been established.

• Antimicrobial activity is not the same as microbiological stability.

• Results obtained with one rose preparation cannot automatically be applied to another.

Conclusion: What Does the Science Really Tell Us?

Scientific investigations indicate that Rosa damascena contains compounds of interest in antimicrobial research.

Certain essential oil samples and concentrated flower extracts have demonstrated the ability to inhibit selected bacteria and fungi under laboratory conditions.

More recent investigations have also explored possible antiviral activity in experimental models.

However, the majority of this evidence comes from laboratory research rather than clinical studies in humans.

The available findings also demonstrate considerable variation between rose-derived preparations.

Rose essential oil, flower extracts, conventional rose hydrosols, and non-de-oiled rose distillates should not be treated as chemically or biologically interchangeable.

A general statement such as "Rosa damascena is antimicrobial" is therefore too broad to accurately describe the scientific evidence.

A more appropriate scientific conclusion is:

Certain Rosa damascena preparations have demonstrated antimicrobial potential against selected microorganisms under defined laboratory conditions. The extent of this activity depends on the preparation, its chemical composition, concentration, and experimental method. Clinical effectiveness and safety must be established separately for the intended use.

Understanding these distinctions allows scientific findings to be communicated accurately without overstating their implications.

The Rose Academy Perspective

At Akita Rose Academy, we believe that scientific research should be interpreted within the limits of the evidence available.

Traditional observations and chemical analyses can inspire research questions, while laboratory and clinical investigations help determine which effects can be demonstrated.

Our educational approach distinguishes published research on Rosa damascena from product-specific testing and exploratory investigations.

The scientific value of a botanical preparation lies not in assuming that it possesses every property reported for its plant of origin, but in understanding its own composition, characteristics, and demonstrated effects.

Scientific References

1. Ulusoy, S., Boşgelmez-Tınaz, G., & Seçilmiş-Canbay, H. (2009). Tocopherol, carotene, phenolic contents and antibacterial properties of rose essential oil, hydrosol and absolute. Current Microbiology, 59, 554–558.
   https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-009-9475-y

2. Özkan, G., Sağdıç, O., Baydar, N. G., & Baydar, H. (2004). Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Rosa damascena flower extracts. Food Science and Technology International, 10(4), 277–281.
   https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013204045882

3. Arıdoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of Pharmacal Research, 25, 860–864.
   https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02977005

4. Bayhan, G. İ., Gümüş, T., Alan, B., et al. (2020). Influence of Rosa damascena hydrosol on skin flora (contact culture) after hand-rubbing. GMS Hygiene and Infection Control, 15, Doc21.
   https://doi.org/10.3205/dgkh000356

5. Ghavam, M., Afzali, A., & Manca, M. L. (2021). Chemotype of damask rose with oleic acid (9 octadecenoic acid) and its antimicrobial effectiveness. Scientific Reports, 11, 8027.
   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87604-1

6. Antoniadou, M., Rozos, G., Vaiou, N., et al. (2024). The in vitro assessment of antibacterial and antioxidant efficacy in Rosa damascena and Hypericum perforatum extracts against pathogenic strains in the interplay of dental caries, oral health, and food microbiota. Microorganisms, 12(1), 60.
   https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010060

7. Vilhelmova-Ilieva, N., Nenova, R., Kalinov, K., et al. (2025). Anti-herpes simplex virus type 1 activity of Rosa damascena Mill essential oil and floral water in retinal infection in vitro and in silico. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(15), 7521.
   https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26157521

8. Dobakhti, F., Eskandari, M., Tavakolizadeh, M., et al. (2023). Impact of rose water mouthwash on prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care unit: A randomized controlled trial. Tanaffos, 22(1), 112–119.
   PubMed – PMID: 37920313

9. Lee et al. (2023). Antifungal activity of Bulgarian rose damascena oil against vaginitis-causing opportunistic fungi. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article 5054865.
   https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/5054865

Akita Rose Academy — Exploring Rosa damascena through botanical knowledge, scientific research, and responsible interpretation of evidence.